Environmental Impacts Of Oil And Gas Environmental Sciences Essay

Environmental Impacts Of Oil And Gas Environmental Sciences Essay Oil and gas companies have been conducting exploration projects worldwide for years in an attempt to find and extract the extremely valuable global resource known as petroleum (BERA 2006). Oil and gas exploration encompasses testing subsoil, using sophisticated technology and is not without any environmental damage. A major challenge in exploration of oil and gas is the ecological significance of repeated exposures to very low-level releases of various chemicals, the removal of vegetative cover, impact on fisheries, and biodiversity loss. Most of the developing countries in Africa are desperate for economic success and this is usually the major driving force behind sanctioning any exploration activities in this region. The problem is that most of these countries are inexperienced in the oil industry and therefore they take into consideration very few environmental implications. In lieu of this, it becomes very prominent that ignoring the immediate and long-term impacts of Ghanas oil and gas exploration activities will have a damaging effect on the surrounding biodiversity and ecosystem. In 2007, Ghana confirmed that an estimated 800 million barrels of oil was found in the southern coast of the Gulf of Guinea by Tullow Oil. Tullow Oil is a Uk based company and is involved in oil exploration in Ghana. The people of Ghana were instantly excited and looking forward to reap the benefits of the discovery but unfortunately the potential detrimental issues associated with exploration were overlooked. The economic benefits associated with this discovery had been prioritised over environmental considerations. The good thing is that Ghana does not have to look far to learn lessons of the past. Nigeria being a few miles away from Ghana is a prime source of information to learn from. Potential impacts refer to both the negative and positive effects on the quality and quantity of the biotic and abiotic factors of the physical environment. In this study, the accentuation is on the negative effects of oil exploration activities on the ecosystem of the coast. The boundary limits for a coastal area is between 50 metres below mean sea level and 50 metres above tide level from the shore. It includes coral reefs, intertidal zones, estuaries, coastal aquaculture, and seagrass communities (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003:54). Considering the associated environmental impacts of oil and gas exploration, it is clear that practicable environmental regulations are critical in controlling and minimizing environmental impacts. The areas for oil and gas exploration in Ghana include the Nzema East Municipal, the Secondi Takoradi Metropolitan, the Ellembelle, the Ahanta West, the Jomoro, the Agona West District Assemblies. The surrounding communities are cape three points, half Assini, Ellembelle, Princes Town, Axim, Discove, Busua, Miamia, Akwidae,Wotera, Sekonde, Eziama, Nkroful and Secondi-Takoradi. These areas will most likely be affected by oil and gas exploration activities. GhanaWestCoastMap Figure : Coastal line of Ghana C:UsersJoseph Addo-YoboDesktopghana-offshore-oil-map.jpg Figure : Ghanas offshore oil fields OBJECTIVES The objectives of this project are: To analyse the environmental impacts from oil and gas exploration on the coastal ecosystem and biodiversity in Ghana. To determine the various levels of water quality parameters such as colour, conductivity, total dissolved solids, potassium content, calcium content, magnesium content, phosphate content, lead and arsenic content. To determine the concentrations of oil/grease in water samples that have been collected and use concentrations as indicators of pollution from oil exploration. To compare levels of oil/grease in water samples with that of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Ghana Environmental Protection Agency ( GEPA). To make recommendations to help manage the associated environmental impacts. Research Questions: What are the environmental impacts of oil and gas exploration on the coastal ecosystem? The thesis begins with the examination and analysis of potential environmental impacts that will probably arise from oil and gas exploration. According to the EP Forum/UNEP Technical Report (1997) the potential impacts may depend upon many other things among which include: The stage of the process, the size and complexity of the project, the nature and sensitivity of the surrounding environment, the effectiveness of planning and migration techniques. Such impacts include atmospheric, aquatic, terrestrial and human impacts. What recommendations will help manage the associated environmental impacts from oil and gas exploration in Ghana? It is not enough to just identify the likely hazards from exploration without recommending measures to cope with or minimize the possible dangers. Recommendations become more essential in view of the fact Ghana is very inexperienced in the industry and legislations are not fully formulated to cope with the environmental hazards that accompany any exploration activity. The thesis gives explicit recommendations based on the findings as lessons from similar studies elsewhere. METHODOLOGY An attempt was made to determine some of the impacts from oil exploration on the Jubilee field area and the environmental coastline by a series of random sampling and by comparing results. An overview of the environmental baseline and ecology is given. This was based on the six oil districts in Ghana and the Jubilee field area. The impacts are categorized into minor, moderate and major. Exploration activities at each phase are presented. Random sampling techniques were carried out to determine whether there was pollution in the water from the exploration activities. A review of the current legislation frameworks in Ghana to cope with these issues. Short term and long term recommendations made to help minimize the impacts. ORGANISATION OF REPORT This report is divided into six chapters. The structure is as follows: Chapter one gives a brief introduction and objectives for conducting this research. The background to the setting and methodology are also included. Chapter two entails the literature review. The location for the oil exploration activities and general approach to oil and gas exploration are described. Chapter three includes what this research comprises of and is discussed in the scope such as the possible impacts on the environment. Chapter four reviews the results of the study presented and are analyzed. The final chapter ends with recommendations, both short term and long term to help minimise the impacts and talks about the current legislation frameworks in place in Ghana to cope with the impacts reviewed in this research. The main conclusions are also presented and further recommendations for further studies made to help address pertinent issues recognized under this study. Presented below is a summary of the research structure: Research Objectives Research Questions Literature Review Methodology Literature Reviews Potential Impacts Observations Results and Analysis Discussion Conclusion Recommendations CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Overview of oil and gas exploration activities on the coastal zone of Ghana Oil and gas exploration involves prospecting surveying and exploration drilling. The prospecting surveying starts with a review of geological maps to identify major sedimentary rocks basins. This may be followed by an aerial photography to identify promising geological formations such as faults and anticlines. A field assessment is done to gather more detailed information. The three methods used for surveying include seismic, magnetic or gravity method. Exploration drilling involves drilling exploration wells to confirm the presence of hydrocarbons. In Ghana, mobile offshore drilling units (MODU) are used. Hydrocarbon exploration in Ghana dates back to 1986 when oil seeps were found in the offshore Tano basin. This eventually led to drilling of exploration wells in the vicinity of Half-Asini (GNPC, 2012). A total of 10 discoveries have been made and about 79 exploration wells drilled in Ghana. None but the Saltpond field, discovered in 1970 and located approximately 100km west of Accra. Currently, Exploration activities are ongoing in Ghanas four sedimentary basins namely the Tano basin, central basin, keta basin and voltaian basin (GNPC, 2012). The most promising discovery so far is the Jubilee field which was discovered in 2007. The Jubilee Unit area covers part of the Deepwater Tano and West Cape three points license areas. Kosmos Ghana HC, an exploration company drilled the Mahogany-1 well in the West Cape Three Points block. Ghanas oil and gas exploration activities do not come without environmental challenges. These challenges may arise from one or more of the following: project footprint, operational discharges, air emissions, waste management and risk of a blow-out during drilling. 2.1.1 Surveying Stage In the first stage of exploring for rock formations bearing hydrocarbons, geological maps are reviewed in desk studies to identify major sedimentary basins (EP Forum/UNEP 1997). Desk study indentifies areas with favourable geological conditions. No potential requirements are needed on ground to do this study. The area is identified based on relief and physical geographical analysis. Based on the results and assumptions from the desk study, if favourable landscape features are revealed, then low hovering aircrafts are used to do aerial survey. The low-flying aircraft over the study are provides overview and peripheral information. A seismic survey is mainly used in hydrocarbon (oil and gas) exploration to investigate the Earths subsurface structure. This method uses the principles of reflective seismology to acquire and interpret seismic data, which allows the estimation of the Earths composition (Morgan, 2003). The seismic method is heavily dependent on differing reflective properties of sound waves to identify hydrocarbon bearing rocks in the earths subterranean zones. An energy source transmits a pulse of acoustic energy into the ground which travels as a wave into the earth (EP Forum/UNEP, 1997). At each point where different geological strata exist, a part of the energy is transmitted down to deeper layers within the earth, while the remainder is reflected back to the surface (EP Forum/UNEP, 1997). Here it is picked up by a series of sensitive receivers called geophones or seismometers in onshore, or hydrophones submerged in water offshore. The signals are transmitted by cables, amplified, filtered, digit alized and recorded for onward interpretation. Figure : Offshore seismic activity 2.1.4 Exploration drilling Drilling of exploration wells are activities that come after seismic data have been interpreted and also after the volume and area of oil and gas resources from potentially productive geological formations been quantified. If oil/gas is discovered, then there will be a need to drill some development wells. Once in position, a series of well sections of reducing size are drilled from the rig. A drill bit, connected to the drill string suspended from the rigs derrick, is rotated in the well. Drill collars are connected to add weight and drilling fluids are distributed through the drill string and injected through the bit. The fluid has a variety of functions that it performs. It imparts hydraulic force that assists the drill bits cutting action, and it cools and lubricates the bit. It eliminates cuttings from the wellbore and protects the well against high formation pressures. When each well section has been drilled, steel casing is run in hole and cemented in place to prevent well failure. When the total reservoir depth is reached the well may be completed and tested by running a production liner and equipment to allow for the flow of hydrocarbons to the surface to establish reservoir properties such as porosity and permeability in a test separator. Any unwanted gas that is produced may be flared. 2.1.5 Appraisal Stage Appraisal is carried out after a successful exploration drilling to determine if the reservoir is economically feasible or viable. It helps in determining the extent and nature of the reservoir by drilling several other wells in the same site. The technical procedures applied to exploratory drilling also applies to appraisal drilling (EP Forum/UNEP, 1997). This requires additional drilling sites that could be reduced by directional drilling hence reducing the ecological footprint and the amount of waste generated. 2.2 Environmental Baseline and Ecology This chapter provides a description of the environmental situation against which the potential impacts of the oil and gas exploration can be assessed and future changes monitored. The chapter presents an overview of the aspects of the environment relating to the surrounding area in which the exploration phase will take place. This includes the Jubilee field unit area, the Ghana marine environment at a wider scale and the four Districts of the Western Region bordering the marine environment. The Jubilee Unit area and its regional setting are shown below. This area is approximately 132 km west-southwest of the city of Takoradi, 60km from the nearest shoreline of Ghana, and 75km from the nearest shoreline of Cote dIvoire. http://subseaworldnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Jubilee-Field.jpg Figure : Location of Jubilee Field Air Quality The principal source of environmental contaminants from the atmosphere across central Africa is biomass due to the burning of firewood and controlled burning in savannah places for farming. It has been estimated that Africa accounts for almost one half of the total biomass burnt worldwide (Andrae, 1993). The result of this biomass combustion is the emission of carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), non methane hydrocarbons and air particulate matter. Upwelling The term upwelling is used when cold, nutrient-rich, water goes from the ground up to the surface, leading to an in increase in plankton productivity in the surface waters. The considerable upwelling period along the Ghana shore occurs from July through to September/October, while a minimal upwelling happens between December and January/Feburuary. The rise in plankton productivity during the periods of considerable and minimal upwelling attracts pelagic fish species into the upper layers of the water column, thereby increasing the rate of fish capture. Fish Ecology Seasonal upwelling influences the composition and distribution of fish species in the water bodies of Ghana. The transport of cooler, heavier and nutrient-rich deep waters to the warmer, usually more nutrient-depleted surface water during times of upwelling promotes very high levels of primary production in phytoplankton. This therefore leads to an increase in the production of zooplankton and fish. The fish species found in Ghanaian waters can be divided into four main groups, namely: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ small pelagic species à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ large pelagic species (tuna and billfish); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ demersal (bottom dwelling) species; and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ deep sea species. The most important small pelagic fish species, both commercially and as prey for larger fish found in the coastal and offshore waters of Ghana are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ round sardinella; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ flat sardinella; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ European anchovy; and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ chub mackerel. Large pelagic seafood stocks off the shore of Ghana consist of seafood and billfish. These varieties are migratory and take up the outer lining position ocean of the whole exotic and sub-tropical Ocean. They are essential varieties in the environment as both should and feed for sharks, other seafood and sea animals as well as offering an essential commercial resource for industrial fisheries. The seafood varieties are skipjack tuna; yellowfin tuna; and bigeye seafood. The billfish varieties happen in much lower figures and comprise swordfish; Ocean blue marlin; and Ocean sailfish. Trawl surveys have proven that demersal seafood are extensive on the navigator shelf along the whole length of the Ghanaian coastline. The demersal varieties that are most essential over the counter (in terms of capture volumes) are cassava croaker, bigeye grunt, red pandora, Angola dentex , Congo dentex and Western Africa goatfish. Over 180 species of fish are believed to take up the deep sea, including 51 different species that are associated with the bottom and a further 106 are listed as bathypelagic (1000 to 4000m). The remaining species are usually regarded to take up depths to 1000 m but may venture into further water during part of their lifecycle. A total of 89 species are likely to be discovered in Ghanaian water bodies within the depth range in the Jubilee field (1,100 and 1,700m). Water Quality Water column samples were taken at two depths, namely sub-surface and at 100m depth. Water alkalinity (pH) was measured on a subsample. Water samples were collected for metal analyses, nutrients, total dissolved solids and suspended solids (EIA, 2009). Water samples were evaluated for a range of determinants including metals and nutrients and the results were found to be: Mercury (Hg). Most stations had Hg concentrations below the detection limit, ie below 0.2 mg/l). Barium (Ba). Ba concentrations were higher in the surface samples and ranged from 5.96ppb to 5.43 ppb for the surface samples and 5.43 ppb to 5 ppb. Lead (Pb). No Pb was detected in any samples. Phosphorous (P). The concentration levels of total phosphorous were higher for samples from the 100m depth than for samples from sub-surface for all the stations. The highest TP concentration recorded for the sub-surface samples was 0.0192 mg/l and the lowest concentration was 0.0145mg/l. Seabirds and Coastal Birds Ghanas seaside swamplands and lagoons form an environmentally essential environment, offering providing, roosting and nesting sites for thousands of migratory and local wildlife. Eight of these seaside wetlands: Keta Lagoon, Songor Lagoon, Sakumo Lagoon, Korle Lagoon, Densu Delta, Muni Lagoon, Elmina Salt Dishes and Esiama Seaside, qualify as globally essential swamplands under the Ramsar requirements of assisting 20,000 waterfowls or 1% of the population of a waterfowl species. Of these only Esiama Seaside falls within the position at most chance of experiencing an oil spill and has an exotic beach believed to back up over 10,000 wildlife. However, there are several other lagoons and swamplands such as Domini Lagoon, Amunsure Lagoon, Ankobra (Ankwao) Estuary, Kpani-Nyila Estuary and the Ehnuli Lagoon which are essential for fowl feeding and reproduction places. They consist of considerable amounts of waterfowls such as typical tern, egret, typical sandpiper, ringed plover and greyish plover. As a whole, the stretch of coastline west of Cape Three Points is regarded as extremely delicate for seaside fowl species. Direct death rate of wildlife in the event of an oil spill is often the most widely recognised danger. While impacts to birds can happen offshore in the marine environment, the more noticeable impacts are often experienced if oil gets to the coastal waters. Oil spills impacting coastal waters near major bird colonies during the reproduction period can be particularly severe since birds are feeding intensively and often dive through the surface oil to feed on fish. Birds are affected by oil pollution in the following three key ways. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Stains of oil on the plumage may destroy the insulating and water repelling properties which may ultimately cause the death of the bird. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Toxic effects after the ingestion of oil during preening, ingestion of oiled prey, inhalation of oil fumes or absorption of oil through skin or eggs. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Indirect effects resulting from destruction of bird habitats or food resources. Coastal bird species and habitats in Ghana are regarded as highly sensitive to potential impacts resulting from an oil spill that reaches the coastline. Marine Mammals Ghanas offshore areas are known to support significant marine mammal populations such as certain protected and sensitive species. Examples being the humpback, fin whales and Atlantic spotted dolphins. While the periodic distribution of these species is not well understood it is likely that during the months of September and October a variety of species of whale and dolphin s pass through these areas. Marine mammals are usually less sensitive to oil spills than seabirds as they will tend to identify the position around a surface oil slick and avoid any breaching or feeding behaviours that may bring them into immediate contact with oil. However, marine mammals are still delicate to results from oil spills, and in particular from the hydrocarbons and chemicals that escape from the oil, particularly in the first few days following a spill. Although it is likely that certain species of marine mammals happen to be in the area offshore Ghana, they are regarded as less sensitive (compared to turtles and birds) to any impacts resulting from an oil spill as they will usually avoid the affected area. CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Magnitude of Impacts This is the degree of change brought about in the environment. An attempt is made to quantify the magnitude of impacts to the natural and social environment. The magnitude of impacts covers all areas of the environment and is discussed as follows: The nature of the change in the environment including what resources or receptors have been affected and how; The spatial extent to which the area has been impacted and what proportion of the population or community has been affected; The temporal extent such as duration, frequency and reversibility of impacts; The probability of impacts occurring as a result of accidental or unplanned events. Table : Magnitude Definitions Impact Magnitude Spatial Scale Temporal scale An assessment of the magnitude of impacts is provided that takes into consideration all dimensions of the impact described above to determine whether an impact is low, medium or high magnitude. Sensitivity of Resources and Receptors The significance of an impact of given magnitude depends on the sensitivity of resources and receptors to that impact. For ecological impacts, sensitivity can be assigned as low, medium or high based on the importance of habitats and species. For habitats, these are based on naturalness, extent, rarity, fragility, diversity and importance as a community resource. Table : Species Value/ Sensitivity Criteria Value / Sensitivity High Criteria Not protected or listed and common / abundant; or not critical to other ecosystem functions. Not protected or listed. A species that is common globally but rare in Ghana; important to ecosystem functions; or under threat or population decline. Specifically protected under Ghanaian legislation and/or international conventions. Listed as rare, threatened or endangered. The magnitudes of impact and the sensitivities are looked at in combination. This is to evaluate whether an impact is, or is not significant and if so its degree of significance defined as either Minor, Moderate or major. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ short-term disturbance directly to the seabed (eg from sediment suspension), with secondary impacts on the benthic and demersal community, during installation of subsea infrastructure; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ permanent habitat and associated species loss or damage from coverage of areas of seabed by moorings, well manifolds, well heads, riser bases, flowlines and umbilicals; and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ permanent changes to the habitat arising from the physical presence of subsea infrastructure (eg sediment disturbance and reef effects from marine organisms growing on subsea infrastructure). Minor Impacts Impacts from flaring on Birds. Many birds chose to migrate at night to take advantage of the more stable weather conditions which benefit migration, and for some species to avoid daytime predators. Artificial lighting, however, may affect nocturnal movement of birds. Previous research has found that migrating birds (especially songbirds, waders and ducks) may circle around offshore lit structures including offshore platforms. The effects are reported to be pronounced during periods of low cloud and fog, when there is poor visibility. Erickson et al. (2001) suggested that lighting was a critical attractant, leading to collision of birds with tall structures, and recent research appears to support the role of lighting. Ongoing research in the Dutch sector of the North Sea for NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij) suggests that the red end of the spectrum components of conventional platform lighting affect birds, and that the use of green spectra could significantly reduce the effects on the populations of those species most at risk (Bruinzeel 2009). Birds which are drawn to lit platforms often circle around for prolonged periods resulting in fatigue. They sometimes land on the platforms, or collide with the structures, and if there is little food or water for them on the platform, this can result in their death. There are Important Bird Areas (IBAs) along the coastline of Ghana and the Ivory Coast which support migratory bird species known to use the East Atlantic Flyway. Such species occur along the west coast of Africa, including red knot (Calidris canutus) and sanderling (Calidris alba). (Boere and Stroud 2006). Detailed information about African bird migration routes is less well understood and is the subject of ongoing research (Birdlife 2009). Whilst there is a risk of migrating birds encountering the platform, many of the effects described above are based on research undertaken in the North Sea, and similar weather conditions in the location of the Jubil ee field are not expected. Research in the North Sea also found that in more stable conditions when skies were clear and there was little cloud, few birds responded to lights (NAM 2007). It is also likely that some of the bird species which are migrating through this area will do so during the daytime, and hence should be less affected by lighting. The Jubilee joint venture partners have had drill rigs deployed in the area for over 2 years and have not reported unusual bird attraction or congregation. The risk of impacts on birds from flaring is considered to be low and not significant. As part of the routine reporting from the FPSO the presence of significant bird landings during the year and/or records of any bird deaths will be recorded to inform any future mitigation strategies. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Impacts from flaring on Turtles. There is the potential that turtles will be attracted to the platform at night where hatchlings could be subject to increased predation by birds and fish that also are attracted to these structures. The risk of any impacts on turtles and turtle hatchlings from lights is considered to be low and not significant. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The impacts to marine mammals and turtles from vessel collision and marine debris. Collisions have been known to occur worldwide and also in West Africa (Fà ©lix and Van Waerebeek, 2005; Van Waerebeek et al., 2007) and increased marine vessel traffic between the Jubilee field and Takoradi port will increase the risk of collisions. The increased risk of collision is considered to be low however given the relatively low volume of project related traffic and the speed that they move at (typically moving at less than 12 knots). Marine mammals and marine turtles are most sensitive in areas with fast moving vessels which frequently change direction and are more able to avoid the large, relatively slow moving support vessels associated with the project. Disposal of solid waste to sea will not occur from the FPSO, MODUs or support vessels, with the exception of treated kitchen waste and treated sewerage, which will be macerated. Discharges during the previously permitted wel l drilling operations, including drill cuttings discharges, are addressed in Annex B. The risks to marine mammals and marine turtles from vessels collisions and damage from marine debris associated with the project are considered to be small and are assessed as not significant. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Impacts from noise. Activities in the Jubilee field will be located approximately 60 km offshore, away from any sensitive noise receptors. Onshore noise at the port in Takoradi from the project is assessed as not significant as activities will be within an existing busy port. Noise on the FPSO will be controlled for occupational exposure reasons so that workers in open areas will not require to wear hearing protection (the WHO standard is 85 dB without hearing protection). A 85 dB noise source (measured at 10 m from source) will have attenuated to 45 dB at 1,000 m. Fishermen and other marine users not associated with the project will be outside the 1,000 m exclusion zone centred on the turret and therefore at least 500 m from the FPSO. The risk of noise exposure above the 85 dB standard is therefore extremely unlikely. Noise from helicopter flights to and from the Air Force base at Takoradi and the Jubilee field has the potential to cause disturbance. Careful flight p lanning to avoid sensitive areas will avoid significant impacts. This includes a minimum flight height of 2,300 feet (710 m) above the Amansuri Wetland IBA to avoid disturbance to wildlife. 3.2 Impacts from physical structures 3.2.1 Impacts from flaring on Birds. Many birds chose to migrate at night to take advantage of the more stable weather conditions which benefit migration, and for some species to avoid daytime predators. Artificial lighting, however, may affect nocturnal movement of birds. Previous research has found that migrating birds (especially songbirds, waders and ducks) may circle around offshore lit structures including offshore platforms. The effects are reported to be pronounced during periods of low cloud and fog, when there is poor visibility. Erickson et al. (2001) suggested that lighting was a critical attractant, leading to collision of birds with tall structures, and recent research appears to support the role of lighting. Ongoing research in the Dutch sector of the North Sea for NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij) suggests that the red end of the spectrum components of conventional platform lighting affect birds, and that the use of green spectra could significantly reduce the effects on the populations of those sp ecies most at risk (Bruinzeel 2009). Birds which are drawn to lit platforms often circle around for prolonged periods resulting in fatigue. They sometimes land on the platforms, or collide with the structures, and if there is little food or water for them on the platform, this can result in their death. There are Important Bird Areas (IBAs) along the coastline of Ghana and the Ivory Coast which support migratory bird species known to use the East Atlantic Flyway. Such species occur along the west coast of Africa, including red knot (Calidris canutus) and sanderling (Calidris alba). (Boe

Dawson’s Creek, the Movie Woo, A Perfect Storm, and A River Runs Through It :: Television Woo Perfect Story River Runs Essays

Dawson’s Creek, the Movie Woo, A Perfect Storm, and A River Runs Through It What is it that improves an author’s writing ability? Is it inborn creativity? In many ways yes, but without a doubt an author’s ability to write comes from skills that he has acquired through everyday life. One of these skills is the combination of watching and reading. It is not just the ability to watch and read, it is how well he can incorporate these skills into a written work. Television and the movie screen can also be tools in a writer’s tool belt. Dawson’s Creek (a television drama) and the movie Woo have aspects incorporated into each whole, these aspects finding comparisons in literature. There is no far stretch required to find a correlation between a screen work and a written work. Since it is not hard to find this correlation between screen work and written work there should be no large task in finding helpful tools in several different genres of literature. The written works A Perfect Storm by Junger and A River Runs Through It written by Ma clean offer literary techniques of their own. How can all of these forms of entertainment contribute to the written word? Television adds many qualities to the nineties life. This is even true of the prime time teen angst drama. Dawson’s Creek (classified with the above prime time teen angst drama) can and does contribute interesting qualities to a written work. This show is a prime example of social interactions. Every character is at least acquainted with every other character, which gives the watcher the chance to see one character in many different situations. The word situation does not always mean social interaction though. Situations encompass the setting also. In television the set is made to be large, bright, and overall catching to the eye. Since a television screen is so small all of the important aspects of the set are brought forth they are easily viewed. This show of blatant importance can help an author decide on what is a really important part of their literature. Television though is not the only tool a writer can take advantage of. Indeed movies can also be of great importance. The motion picture Woo contains several interesting tools, which are readily available to an author. This movie was performed in an English dialect that not many identify with or write with.

Air pollution in Kawempe Division of Kampala, Uganda

Air pollution in Kawempe Division of Kampala, Uganda Hazard Word pictureIntroductionThe wellness effects of air pollution have been widely documented and assessed largely in North America and Europe, nevertheless air pollution in low- and middle-income states poses a great public wellness load that has non been decently assessed ( 1–6 ) . All right particulate affair comprised of atoms of width 2.5?g or less ( PM2.5) has been associated with mortality due to the development of cardiovascular or respiratory diseases and lung malignant neoplastic disease ( 3 ) . In the Kawempe Division in Kampala ( Uganda ) measurings of PM2.5from December 2013 and January 2014 were found to be above guideline bounds of the World Health Organization ( WHO ) bespeaking the demand for a consistent exposure appraisal of the air pollution and its wellness load in Uganda ( 7,8 ) .Hazard IdentificationAcute events of smog in the Meuse vale in Belgium and in London in 1933 and 1952, severally were among the first events that indicated the association between air pollution and mortality ( 9,10 ) . More late epidemiologic surveies quantified effects of chronic and ague exposures to poisons such as particulate affair, ozone, or benzine on wellness ( 3,11,12 ) . More specifically PM2.5exposure have been associated with inauspicious wellness results in big epidemiologic surveies in assorted scenes ( 8,13 ) . Chronic effects of exposure to particulate affair have been studied in prospective cohort surveies with big sample sizes and long follow-up periods in assorted locations such as the US, Canada, in Europe and China ( 2,4,5 ) . The first survey that associated cardiorespiratory and lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality with PM2.5was published in 1993 by Dockery et Al ( 3 ) . In this first appraisal informations from six metropoliss with changing degrees of air pollution and mortality from cardiorespiratory diseases, lung malignant neoplastic disease, all causes of mortality and mortality from all other causes except cardiorespiratory diseases or lung malignant neoplastic disease was investigated. Following up to the â€Å"six metropoliss study† Laden et Al. in 2006 reported on the association between cardiovascular diseases ( CVD ) mortality, lung malignant neoplastic disease and respiratory upsets ( 14 ) . Following up the same cohort and reanalyzing the information Lepeu le et Al. in 2012 besides confirmed the association between CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality with PM2.5exposures ( 15 ) . In 2002, Pope et Al. besides reported the consequences of a larger cohort with PM2.5measurings of 51 metropolitan countries in the US, reasoning besides that there is increased hazard of mortality at 4 % , 6 % and 8 % from all causes, CVD, and lung malignant neoplastic disease, severally with each 10?g/m3addition in PM2.5( 4 ) . Similar consequences were besides reported in the Canadian survey of Crouse et al. , 2012 in a cohort of 2.1 million Canadian grownups ( 16 ) . All these surveies set the scene for comprehensive wellness hazard appraisal of PM2.5. They provided cohesive and timely consequences from dependable beginnings on the fluctuations PM2.5and mortality fulfilling Hill’s standards.Exposure AppraisalKampala, the capital of Uganda has a population of about 1,500,000, it is the 2neodymiummost thickly settled territory in the state ( 17 ) . The Kawempe division of Kampala is located in the North of the metropolis and has a population of 338,312, with an estimated 84,240 above the age of 30 old ages ( 17 ) . Measurement of ambient PM2.5degrees took topographic point two yearss during winter 2012-2013 in the country of Mperewre of the Kawempe Division and they were reported as portion on a pilot survey published in 2014 ( 7 ) . The mean Autopsy2.5concentration for the topographic point measurings was 104.3?g/m3. It besides exceeds both the one-year and 24-hour WHO guideline values that are set at 10?g/m3and 25?g/m3, severally, and antecedently reported measurings in developed states ( 8 ) . The mensural PM2.5degrees are nevertheless consistent with measurings in other developing states. Datas from Asiatic metropoliss suggest that the high Autopsy2.5concentrations are non rare in developing scenes where monitoring is non routinely conducted. Harmonizing to the 2010 study of the Health Effects Institute on outdoor air pollution in the underdeveloped states of Asia the degrees of PM2.5can be every bit high as 150?g/m3( 6 ) . In the same study, for illustration, in Shenzhen and Guengzhou, in China, 24-hour mean summer concentrations of PM2.5were 35?g/m3Autopsy2.5was every bit high as 97.5?g/m3. Exposure appraisal of PM2.5effects on mortality in the Kawempe Division are hindered by the deficiency of one-year norm values that would reflect fluctuations in air pollution. However given the features of the country, where a landfill is located and the tendency for increased urbanisation in Uganda and its deductions ( i.e. increased traffic etc ) the high Autopsy2.5degrees in Mperewre may reflect the norm of PM2.5degrees in the location ( 18,19 ) . Within the range of the present exposure appraisal we are based on the premise that the mean of the available topographic point measurings reflects the average PM2.5degrees in the Kawempe division of Kampala. Based on the handiness of information we can non be certain about the PM2.5concentrations fluctuate in the country over clip and the derived decision might be over- or undervaluing the existent wellness effects of PM2.5wellness effects. Table 1 Autopsy2.5concentrations and meteoric parametric quantities on the yearss that measurement took topographic point harmonizing to Schwander et al. , 2014.December 31, 2012January 2, 2013Autopsy2.5 ­concentrations (?g/m ­3 ­)104.9103.7Average concentration (?g/m ­3 ­)104.3Meteorologic parametric quantitiesAverage temperature (0C ) [ min, soap ] 22.2 [ 18.9, 25.0 ]24.4 [ 20.6, 27.8 ]Dew point temperature (0C )18.920.0Mean wind velocity ( kilometers per hour ) [ max ] 8.1 [ 16.1 ]8.1 [ 19.3 ]Exposure-Response AnalysisThe exposure-response relationships between PM2.5and mortality from CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease have been antecedently studied in US populations by Laden et Al. ( six metropoliss study, follow-up ) and by Pope et Al. ( 4,14,22 ) . In the survey of Laden CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease deceases were associated with exposure to PM2.5( 14 ) . Specifically a 10?g/m3addition in the mean Autopsy2.5was associated with comparative hazard ( RR ) of 1.28 ( 1.13-1.44, 95 % CI ) for CDV mortality and a RR of 1.27 ( 0.96-1.69, 95 % CI ) for lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality. In the survey of Pope et al. , 2002 for the same PM2.5incremental alteration addition in lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality was estimated at 8 % ( 4 ) . Both surveies, the 1993 survey of the six metropoliss and the Lepeule’s follow up have established the association between increased exposure to PM2.5and increased hazard for C VD and lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality. The form of the exposure-response map nevertheless is non additive in all doses nor does it hold the same form for both results. The exposure-response map of mortality from CVD starts steep in low exposures and going flatter with increasing concentrations ( 22 ) . In the instance of lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality the exposure-response map is more additive and it is, as expected, more influenced by confounders ( i.e. smoke ) ( 22 ) . Additionally in all the aforesaid surveies the exposure-response maps have been established based on the effects of low exposures, normally below 50?g/m3. In Uganda, the age-adjusted mortality rate from lung malignant neoplastic disease is 2.7 among males and 2.4 among females ( per 100,000 ) while the same index for CVD is 276.7 and 250.7 per 100,000 population ( males and females, severally ) ( 20,21 ) . In order to gauge the figure of CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease deceases attributed to 104?g/m3of ( assumed ) one-year exposure we will be based on the exposure-response maps for CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality developed by Pope et Al, 2011 that were derived from a prospective cohort of 1.2 million grownups ( & gt ; 30 old ages old ) and old surveies in the US which accounted for assorted confounders of exposure. They estimated the RR associated with different degrees of PM2.5exposure accounting for ambient air pollution, active coffin nail smoke and secondhand smoke to gauge the day-to-day norm inhaled dosage of PM2.5. The RR for each of the two results ( CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality ) was so calculated with the power map: RR=1+? ( dosage )?which corresponds to a nonlinear monotone map for which at zero dose the RR is equal to 1. Table 2 Exposure appraisal informationPopulation features( 17 )MalesFemalesEntireKawempe Division159,800178,512338,312Population above 30 old ages old ( 24.9 % * )39,79044,44984,240Kampala722,638793,5721,516,210Entire population16,935,45617,921,35734,856,813Age standardized decease rates per 100000( 20,21 )Cardiovascular diseases276.7250.7Lung malignant neoplastic disease2.72.4Entire figure of deceases in Kawempe territory for the those & gt ; 30 old ages oldCardiovascular diseases110111222Lung malignant neoplastic disease112RR estimations for both genders ( for dosage of PM2.5104?g/m3)Attributable hazard fractionNumber of instances attributed to PM2.5Cardiovascular diseasesRR=1+0.2685 ( dosage )0.27301.950.49108Lung malignant neoplastic diseaseRR=1+0.3195 ( dosage )0.743311.090.912Hazard Word pictureWith an estimated RR of 1.95 for CVD mortality due to PM2.5degrees of 104?g/m3the PM2.5-associated mortality instances in the entire population above 30 old ages old of Kawempe Division is about 108 ( Table 2 ) . The age standardized mortality rate for CVD – the primary wellness result that has been associated with increased air pollution – in Uganda is comparatively high contrary and future research is needed to decently gauge the fraction of instances attributed to air pollution which was comparatively high in this study ( 0.49, ( Table 2 ) . As expected given the to the low mortality rate of lung malignant neoplastic disease in the country and the fact it is confounded by other factors that could non be assessed in ( i.e. smoking ) we can non properly measure the impact of PM2.5on the figure of lung malignant neoplastic disease deceases in Kawempe Division. For the present analysis the informations used were compiled from assorted beginnings. Population estimations were taken from the probationary study on the 2014 nose count. Lung malignant neoplastic disease and CVD age standardized mortality rates were taken from GLOBOCAN and the WHO, severally. Therefore all computations are based on the premise that for the 2014 of Kawempe Division the mortality rates are the same as the last reported in the aforesaid beginnings. The fact that there is the information might non reflect the decently the features of the population is an of import restriction of this appraisal. Along with the fact that hazard estimations were based on surveies of lower Autopsy2.5degrees. Future research needs to be based on seasonably collected information and hazard theoretical accounts that account for the high exposures. Mentions 1. Katsouyanni K, Rimm EB, Gnardellis C, Trichopoulos D, Polychronopoulos E, Trichopoulou A. Reproducibility and comparative cogency of an extended semi-quantitative nutrient frequence questionnaire utilizing dietetic records and biochemical markers among Grecian school teachers. Int J Epidemiol. 1997 Jan 1 ; 26 ( suppl 1 ) : S118. 2. Raaschou-Nielsen O, Andersen ZJ, Beelen R, Samoli E, Stafoggia M, Weinmayr G, et Al. Air pollution and lung malignant neoplastic disease incidence in 17 European cohorts: prospective analyses from the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects ( ESCAPE ) . The Lancet Oncology. 2013 Aug ; 14 ( 9 ) :813–22. 3. Dockery DW, Pope CA, Xu X, Spengler JD, Ware JH, Fay ME, et Al. An Association between Air Pollution and Mortality in Six U.S. Cities. New England Journal of Medicine. 1993 Dec 9 ; 329 ( 24 ) :1753–9. 4. Pope III CA. Lung Cancer, Cardiopulmonary Mortality, and Long-run Exposure to Fine Particulate Air Pollution. JAMA. 2002 Mar 6 ; 287 ( 9 ) :1132. 5. Cao J, Yang C, Li J, Chen R, Chen B, Gu D, et Al. Association between long-run exposure to outdoor air pollution and mortality in China: A cohort survey. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2011 Feb 28 ; 186 ( 2–3 ) :1594–600. 6. HEI International Scientific Oversight Committee. Outdoor Air Pollution and Health in the Developing Countries of Asia: A Comprehensive Review. Boston, MA: Health Effects Institute ; 2010. 7. Schwander S, Okello CD, Freers J, Chow JC, Watson JG, Corry M, et Al. Ambient Particulate Matter Air Pollution in Mpererwe District, Kampala, Uganda: A Pilot Study. J Environ Public Health [ Internet ] . 2014 [ cited 2015 Feb 26 ] ; 2014. Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3945229/ 8. WHO | Air quality guidelines – planetary update 2005 [ Internet ] . WHO. 2015 [ cited 2015 Mar 5 ] . Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/outdoorair_aqg/en/ 9. Bell ML, Davis DL. Reappraisal of the deadly London fog of 1952: fresh indexs of ague and chronic effects of acute exposure to air pollution. Environ Health Perspect. 2001 Jun ; 109 ( Suppl 3 ) :389–94. 10. Nemery B, Hoet PH, Nemmar A. The Meuse Valley fog of 1930: an air pollution catastrophe. The Lancet. 2001 Mar ; 357 ( 9257 ) :704–8. 11. Kheirbek I, Wheeler K, Walters S, Kass D, Matte T. PM2.5 and ozone wellness impacts and disparities in New York City: sensitiveness to spacial and temporal declaration. Air Qual Atmos Health. 2012 Oct 12 ; 6 ( 2 ) :473–86. 12. Savitz DA, Andrews KW. Review of epidemiologic grounds on benzine and lymphatic and haematopoietic malignant neoplastic diseases. Am J Ind Med. 1997 Mar 1 ; 31 ( 3 ) :287–95. 13. US EPA O. Particulate Matter | Air & A ; Radiation | US EPA [ Internet ] . 2013 [ cited 2015 Mar 9 ] . Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.epa.gov/pm/ 14. Laden F, Schwartz J, Speizer FE, Dockery DW. Decrease in Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006 Mar 15 ; 173 ( 6 ) :667–72. 15. Lepeule J, Laden F, Dockery D, Schwartz J. Chronic Exposure to Fine Particles and Mortality: An Drawn-out Follow-up of the Harvard Six Cities Study from 1974 to 2009. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2012 Mar 28 ; 120 ( 7 ) :965–70. 16. Crouse DL, Peters PA, new wave Donkelaar A, Goldberg MS, Villeneuve PJ, Brion O, et Al. Hazard of Nonaccidental and Cardiovascular Mortality in Relation to Long-term Exposure to Low Concentrations of Fine Particulate Matter: A Canadian National-Level Cohort Study. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2012 Feb 7 ; 120 ( 5 ) :708–14. 17. UBOS. National Population and Housing Census 2014 – Probationary consequences [ Internet ] . Uganda Bureau of Statistics ; 2014 Nov. Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/NPHC/NPHC 2014 PROVISIONAL RESULTS REPORT.pdf 18. Mwiganga M, Kansiime F. The impact of Mpererwe landfill in Kampala – Uganda, on the environing environment. [ Internet ] . Makerere University – College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. 2012 [ cited 2015 Mar 9 ] . Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //caes.mak.ac.ug/research/research-publications/141-publications-for-2005/820-the-impact-of-mpererwe-landfill-in-kampala-uganda-on-the-surrounding-environment.html 19. Mwiganga M, Kansiime F. The impact of Mpererwe landfill in Kampala–Uganda, on the environing environment. Physicss and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C. 2005 ; 30 ( 11–16 ) :744–50. 20. WHO. Noncommunicable Diseases ( NCD ) Country Profiles – Uganda [ Internet ] . 2014 [ cited 2015 Mar 9 ] . Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.who.int/nmh/countries/uga_en.pdf? ua=1 21. Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Ervik M, Dikshit R, Eser S, Mathers C, et Al. Cancer Incidence and Mortality Worldwide: IARC CancerBase No. 11 [ Internet ] . GLOBOCAN 2012 v1.0. 2013 [ cited 2015 Mar 5 ] . Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/outdoorair_aqg/en/ 22. Pope CA, Burnett RT, Turner MC, Cohen A, Krewski D, Jerrett M, et Al. Lung Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality Associated with Ambient Air Pollution and Cigarette Smoke: Shape of the Exposure–Response Relationships. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2011 Jul 19 ; 119 ( 11 ) :1616–21. Appendix – Analytica theoretical account File: Xanthi_Andrianou_RA_W4_Risk_characterization

Analysis Of Shylock The Vulture - 1063 Words

1 Cardona Antonio Cardona Professor Patricia Patrick English 315 20 October 2017 Shylock: the vulture Through the foreshadowing of capitalism, William Shakespeare not only saw but also denounced in his comedy the usury, the rigidity, and the threat of disobedience to the laws. This was something that clearly scared any type of investor. The aggressive attitude of the one who fears by his business. The hypocritical attitude of going ahead without measuring the consequences. The passivity of the State, or at least its ineffectiveness. All this in the dawn of Capitalism where we do to others what you want them to do to you appears to be irrelevant. Which really questions what is fair or unfair. Shakespeare projects to the reader in his†¦show more content†¦Shylock requests a pound of flesh from Antonio on his search for justice. He claimed, My deeds upon my head. I crave the law, The penalty, and forfeit of my bond (4.1.195-196). Essentially, he tries to make everyone believe that as a follower of the law he would ve allow Antonio to cut a pound of flesh from his very own body if it was the other way around. Portia challenges Shylock s hidden intentions. She says, Shylock, there s thrice thy money offered thee (4.1.218). Getting his bond repaid was really not his moto. She is giving him the opportunity to understand that mercy is more important than justice, that he should show an act of mercy for Antonio. Still, Shylock persists and really just shows his real vision when he says, By my soul I swear / There is no power in the tongue of man / To alter me. I stay here on my bond. His moto is really to hurt Antonio and finally gain revenge. Shylock shows himself as an individual without mercy. Where all that really matters was the insatiable thirst for revenge that controlled his actions. Mercy plays an important role in this trial. Conversely, Shylock can only receive the mercy what he is willing to give. Portia warns Shylock about it. She says, For, as thou urgest justice, be assured Thou shalt have justice more than thou desirest (4.1.1.314-315). Shylock has been given the